This page provides consolidated sources that inform educational content, care standards, and ethical positions published by the Land Hermit Crab Owners Society (LHCOS). These sources include peer-reviewed research, applied husbandry guidance, conservation reporting, and documented industry practices.

LHCOS standards are based on the convergence of biological research, environmental science, veterinary and husbandry principles, and documented outcomes in captive care. Not all welfare concerns are represented by single experimental studies; many reflect established scientific understanding applied to real-world conditions.

Hermit Crab Shells and Shell Selection

Shell Use, Assessment, and Behavior

Hazlett, B.A. (1981). The behavioral ecology of hermit crabs. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics.
https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev.es.12.110181.002243

Elwood, R.W., & Neil, S.J. (1992). Assessments and decision making in hermit crabs. Advances in the Study of Behavior.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0065345408601814

Painted Shell Risks and Applied Husbandry Outcomes

Crab Street Journal – “Say No to Painted Shells”
https://crabstreetjournal.org/blog/say-no-to-painted-shells/

Echoes of Long Beach Island – “The Perils of Painted Shells”
https://echoesoflbi.com/the-perils-of-painted-shells/

Forced Shell Removal and Industry Practices

People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals – “Hermit Crabs’ Shells Crushed, Hundreds Dead”
https://investigations.peta.org/hermit-crabs-shells-crushed-hundreds-dead/

PETA undercover video footage (Brelean Corporation investigation)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K6vXzG0WZqY

Housing, Habitat, and Environmental Standards

Burrowing, Molting, and Substrate

Wright, J.C., & Hill, L.G. (1993). Burrowing behavior and molting in land hermit crabs. Journal of Crustacean Biology.
https://academic.oup.com/jcb/article/13/4/738/2671997

Crab Street Journal – “Substrate for Hermit Crabs”
https://crabstreetjournal.org/blog/substrate-for-hermit-crabs/

Crab Street Journal – “Molting in Land Hermit Crabs”
https://crabstreetjournal.org/blog/molting-in-land-hermit-crabs/

Humidity, Respiration, and Water Balance

Greenaway, P. (1988). Ion and water balance in terrestrial crustaceans. Physiological Zoology.
https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/physzool.61.5.30157950

Crab Street Journal – “Humidity for Hermit Crabs”
https://crabstreetjournal.org/blog/humidity-for-hermit-crabs/

Crab Street Journal – “Fresh and Salt Water for Hermit Crabs”
https://crabstreetjournal.org/blog/water-for-hermit-crabs/

Temperature and Environmental Stability

Carey, F.G. (1973). Thermal regulation in crustaceans. American Zoologist.
https://academic.oup.com/icb/article/13/1/87/174662

Crab Street Journal – “Heating Hermit Crab Habitats”
https://crabstreetjournal.org/blog/heating-hermit-crab-habitats/

Nutrition and Dietary Standards

Natural Diet and Nutritional Requirements

Greenaway, P. (2003). Terrestrial adaptations in the Anomura (Crustacea). Memoirs of Museum Victoria.
https://museumsvictoria.com.au/media/2080/memoirs-of-museum-victoria-60-greenaway.pdf

Crab Street Journal – “What Do Hermit Crabs Eat?”
https://crabstreetjournal.org/blog/what-do-hermit-crabs-eat/

Crab Street Journal – “Protein for Hermit Crabs”
https://crabstreetjournal.org/blog/protein-for-hermit-crabs/

Crab Street Journal – “Commercial Hermit Crab Foods”
https://crabstreetjournal.org/blog/commercial-hermit-crab-food/

Toxic Ingredients and Feeding Risks

Crab Street Journal – “Why Pelleted Foods Are Dangerous”
https://crabstreetjournal.org/blog/pelleted-hermit-crab-food/

Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) for copper sulfate and ethoxyquin (various manufacturers)
https://www.epa.gov/ingredients-used-pesticide-products/copper-sulfate
https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Ethoxyquin

Ethics, Conservation, and Welfare Context

Conservation and Wild Collection Impacts

International Union for Conservation of Nature – Coastal and Invertebrate Conservation Resources
https://www.iucn.org/resources

Crab Street Journal – “Why Hermit Crabs Die in Captivity”
https://crabstreetjournal.org/blog/why-hermit-crabs-die/

Invertebrate Welfare and Care Guidance

Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals – Invertebrate Welfare Guidance
https://www.rspca.org.uk/adviceandwelfare/pets/other/invertebrates

Association of Zoos and Aquariums – Invertebrate and Crustacean Care Resources
https://www.aza.org/animal-care-manuals

Citation and Standards Note

LHCOS care standards and ethical positions are informed by:

  • Peer-reviewed research on hermit crab biology and behavior
  • Established principles of crustacean physiology
  • Documented outcomes in captive husbandry
  • Conservation science and animal welfare investigations

Where direct experimental studies are not available, conclusions are based on consensus understanding and applied evidence consistent with nonprofit education and animal welfare best practices.